The first Doppler weather radar was commissioned in 1964 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or NOAA. When scientists experimented with tornados, they quickly realized the 3-cm Doppler was not big or powerful enough to receive and track all of the needed information. They realized this one radar would need improvements.

The National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) observed NOAA’s upgraded 10-cm Doppler in 1973, which was able to track a tornado’s life cycle. This data told scientists of the circular motion of a tornado’s winds, as well as the centripetal point of rotation, which the inner clouds rotate around.

Scientists sought to increase their knowledge of how storms like these formed. One particular storm in May of 1973 cut right through the heart of Union City, Oklahoma. Union City lies in the center of the infamous “Tornado Alley” region of the United States. With the data received by the scientists, they were able to start planning upgrades and improvements of the Doppler weather radar so it could be a more reliable asset to the government and the residents.

The Doppler system maps weather radar by measuring the motion inside these very hostile storms. Over time, scientists discovered that tornadoes produce a unique signature; different from regular storms. And as time went on, they were able to recognize this pattern, which they later called the “tornadic vortex” signature.

Doppler weather radar improvements, including NEXRAD (Next Generation Radar), increased the warning time and the path prediction accuracy in storms with tornadic activity. Using NEXRAD, scientists nationwide are able to share data, giving a clearer picture of what to expect. In 2007, the National Weather Service picked up on tornadic cloud rotation and signature “hook-echo” patterns.

Residents of Enterprise, Alabama were warned to take cover, and a full eighteen minutes later the tornado touched ground. Thanks to NEXRAD, the previous, typical five minute warning time to get to a safe place finally saw a dramatic increase.

Eighteen minutes is ample time to gather family and emergency supplies and take shelter. It was also enough time for some commuters to seek shelter in a sturdy building and get off the streets. It is the goal of all meteorologists to increase the lead time to 20 minutes, saving many more lives in the process.

Doppler weather radar has come a long way. In the beginning, scientists hoped to save lives by getting the severe weather reports announced faster. Now, almost forty-five years since its birth, this one radar system is doing exactly that.

This article describes typical mistakes made by beginning sailors and then introduces a simple and reliable method to find the direction of the wind quickly while sailing. The observations and suggestions in this article were generated during the sailing lessons taught at Fair Wind Sailing School.

Common Mistakes
Beginning sailors typically make two common mistakes when attempting to identify the wind direction. The first is to stare at the wind instruments and solely rely on the instruments to reveal the source of the wind. While instruments can be a valuable aid to navigation, prior to the development of basic sailing skills are developed, they can often be confusing and even misleading.

Our experience has been that the wind instrument is usually the worst place to find the wind direction for a beginning sailor. First, reading a wind instrument may not be intuitive to the new sailor. It is quite common for new sailors to misread the instrument confusing true versus apparent wind or even misreading the directional arrow of an analog wind gauge. Even more concerning is that — as any experienced sailor will testify — wind instruments are typically wrong. Calibration issues, slow response times, shifting winds and knowing how to switch between true and apparent readings all contribute to wind accuracy readings that are far too often different from the actual conditions. This is especially true for lower cost wind instruments.

Even if the wind instrument is reading correctly, it can take the beginning sailor a long time staring at the wind instrument to read it correctly. While staring at the instrument, the helmsman is not looking out. It is quite common, again particularly for a beginner, to turn the boat when not looking ahead. As the helmsman unknowingly turns the boat, the direction of the wind appears to turn too. Of course, this is not the true weather conditions, and it further complicates the first challenge of finding the direction of the wind.

When taken in combination, the issues of long periods of staring the electronics rather than sailing the boat, slow responses to shifting wind and potential mis-calibrations, the wind instrument is quite possibly the worst way to try and find the wind direction quickly for the beginning sailor.

The mast head fly is a step better than the wind instrument. Since it always reads the apparent wind, the mast head fly eliminates one of the issues inherent with wind instruments, like figuring out if you are looking at true or apparent wind. However, looking up at the mast head to quickly identify prevailing wind direction is also difficult for new sailors. Similar to staring at wind instruments, long periods looking straight up at the top of the mast make steering a boat straight very difficult for newcomers. Again just like looking at the wind instrument for long periods, what appears to be a shifting wind can be nothing more than the boat turning. In summary, while better than the wind instrument, reading the wind direction quickly from the mast head fly can be a trickly and time consuming endeavor the new sailor.

A third common mistake for beginners is to over think the situation. Typically, this occurs with confusion between true and apparent wind and trying to estimate one from the other. When starting out, newcomers can simplify the situation by remembering that we feel only the apparent wind. Since we also trim sails and run the boat to apparent wind, this is the only wind data point we need. It is the apparent wind, then, that we are looking for and that we can feel. For the beginner, focus on the apparent wind and forget the true wind to simply observations and speed you decision making.

A Simple and Easy Method To Identify Wind Direction
To identify the wind direction, we need a method to avoid the common mistakes. This means first of all, ignoring the instruments. Instead, we will identify the wind direction the old fashion way — we will feel it. To feel the wind, we will also need minimal distraction. We accomplish this by closing our eyes, too! It may sound counter-intuitive to close your eyes when steering a sail boat, but we will only need a second or two with this procedure, and closing your eyes for a second or two is far better than staring at instruments for long periods.

The total procedure is very simple, close your eyes, feel the wind on your cheeks and turn your head until you are looking directly into the wind. You’ll be amazed that in a second or two you’ll be able identify the wind direction accurately nearly 100% of the time. Fast and accurate — exactly the procedure we are looking for!

Summary
In summary, to accurately and quickly identify the wind direction, ignore the instruments and use your senses. By closing your eyes and feeling the wind on your face, you’ll be able to quickly and accurately identify the wind direction nearly 100% of the time in seconds.

All sports, especially those played outdoors are affected by the changes in weather conditions. The first to be really impacted upon are the players who have to adjust physically, mentally, and emotionally — factors which often dictate what could happen at the end of the game.

Playing golf entails proper training in order to hit the tee perfectly under a gloomy climate. Weather conditions, for example, since it affects the growth and texture of the grass, have a big impact on the leveled surface vital to a golfer’s performance. This is usually called “throwing darts”, it means that the ball and the shots are not high enough which results in lower points.

Remember that the conditioning of the green can influence the game of the golfers and the golf course operation. That is why the a change of strategy is helpful when playing golf during bad weather since golf is a game that is specifically dependent on the weather.

When there is low humidity and dryer soil, the greens are maintained more easily. That is why golfers often play during fall or spring. The favorable and consistent sunny skies and growth of the turf allows a considerable and reliable time for golfers to hold their tees.

The roughs can become heavier which makes it difficult for shots to recover when soaked in water. Water ends up between the ball and the clubface because of the fewer spins than a normal spin. Bad consequences are then more inevitable after an off-line shot. This is when a good golf playing strategy during wet weather is needed for it will be more considerable to have the ball always elevated off the grass as fast as possible. During these situations, footprints and marks of the ball are deeper and the sad part is that scores tend to be lower. When this happens, extra effort is needed for the player to end with better scores.

Points to remember when playing in a wet weather condition:

Make it a point to keep the grips and the hands dry during a rainy day. The caddy can bring one towel for grip drying and another one to dry hands.
Ask someone to bring a cover for the golf bag. This will be a good idea since it will keep the grips of the tee dry.
A golfer will be comfortable and can sustain long hours of golf game if the equipment and he himself is dry.
Just be patient and the scores will be higher even during the wet weather condition.
Strategize more, visualize the goal in mind prior to entering the game. This will prepare the player for any difficult situations he will need to face on wet and uneven fairways.

Golfers need to have the balls to land as close as possible to holes to lessen the amount of rolls of the balls on wet grass. Balls will have to be hit harder to prevent breakage and to halt sooner.

Even expert golfers can surmount the challenge of playing on soaked grass field at times when the weather does not permit any good sunlight to watch over them. Rule of thumb is that even if a golfer is faced with such a difficult task, he must keep in mind that his competitors are too. When golfers are wet, the playtime is longer for the ball can’t roll smoothly and far which is a plus for those who drive the tee off longer.

Weather conditions might affect the environs of the game, but a skillful and prepared player won’t have a hard time thinking of ways to ward off the weather’s bad effects on one’s game. Enough determination to play well and a little knowledge on how to outsmart the weather will make playing golf a cinch even when the day’s weather is not that good.

A number of my friends take their kids to the desert in December to go dirt biking and they complain about the cold camping. Well, here are a number of tips that I’ve used when cold weather camping that will make your campout more enjoyable.

The obvious first tip is to bring warm clothes. So why am I mentioning this? So, you’ll bring the right clothes! Bring gloves, ski jackets, wool hats, wool socks, long underwear, turtleneck shirts, sweat pants, sweaters and lots of extra clothes that you can layer. Unlike summer camping where you can get away with a couple of t-shirts and a pair of shorts. Plan to over pack during cold weather. As the old adage goes, “It’s easier to put on clothes you have than clothes you don’t have!”

Shelter – Find a place to shelter your tent from winds. I know it may be hard to do this in a desert, but try to make camp on the edge of a dry lakebed, not in the middle. If the wind seems to be coming from a particular direction, park your vehicle to block the wind.

During the day you keep warm by being active - hiking, dirt biking, etc. At night when it gets colder and sleep beacons you is when you need to be prepared.

Bedding – Make sure you bring lots of warm bedding. I usually take a 0° F rated sleeping bag, a sleeping pad, an extra blanket and a summer rated sleeping bag. Make sure you have lots of padding between your sleeping bag and the ground of your tent. If you don’t, the cold ground will suck all the heat out of your body while you sleep! Burrrrr!

Sleeping – Before you go to bed, put on your long underwear, wool socks and a wool hat. Your body loses lots of heat through an exposed head. If you wake up cold, put the extra blanket or summer sleeping bag on top of you or another layer of clothes such as: sweat pants and a sweat shirt. If you get too warm, vent your sleeping bag by opening the zipper, or vent yourself by taking off your wool hat or a layer of clothing. The key is to keep warm, but not to sweat. Perspiration will make you wet and cold. If this happens, peel off your wet clothes and put some dry clothes on and start again. Now aren’t you glad you brought lots of clothes!

Warmth – A couple of tricks I use are to build a fire at night so everyone can sit around, chat and get toasty before going to bed. But, also while the fire is burning, put a pot of water on the fire, bring it not quite to a boil, pour it into a canteen or heavy-duty water bottle and take it to bed with you to warm the sleeping bag! Additionally, it’s always good to have some hot beverage – cocoa or tea prior to bed to put something warm in your body. But, you better rid yourself of the fluids before you go to bed. Nothing is worse than waking up in the middle of a cold night to the “call of nature.”

Hopefully you will find these tips useful and feel comfortable enough to camp when the weather is cold. Try it! It’s quite a sense of accomplishment.

Price and service are not the only criteria for establishing vendors or suppliers. All suppliers have standard working agreements. Other benefits, however, are available “only for the asking”. A vendor can be a long term partner. Your success and future profits will rely heavily on what they offer on your behalf. This is most important considering the high cost of merchandise and supplies. The initial agreement sets the basis for additional profit.

You need to have a plan for growth so prospective vendors know what they can expect now and in the future. Be sure to only contact vendors capable of supplying necessary merchandise and supplies. Advise each vendor he is one of many suppliers being considered. The potential supplier’s attitude toward your company and any future business can be determined by the supplier’s response to the benefits you request.

The following are some of the points you should consider when establishing suppliers and vendors. All points might not apply to every vendor product line but if special agreements are not negotiated you will not receive maximum benefits.

* Payment terms - many times the vendor’s opening policy will be C.O.D. on all merchandise purchased. However, you should attempt to negotiate along the following lines.
* Request extended billing on the initial order for basic stock; this will help improve cash flow (120 days, 90 days, etc.). And/or request extended billing for a period of restocking. For example, ask for 60 day billing for the first six months and then the maximum they allow after six months
* Discounts - Request the maximum discount for early payment. For example - 2 % - 30days.
* Unit cost - Lowest price possible, negotiate quantity discounts for high volume purchases, find out the point at which the vendor can afford to give you the lowest possible price and factor this amount against your inventory holding costs.
* Cost guarantees - Negotiate the longest possible price guarantee, unless you are dealing in a commodity type market where your price may decrease.
* Freight - always insist on prepaid (the vendor can probably get a better rate then you can) and you also may be able to negotiate freight completely paid by the vendor especially in conjunction with volume purchases.
* Invoice due dates - determined from the date goods are received or the invoice date - whichever is later.
* Cut off dates - merchandise received after the 25th of the month to be considered as received as of the first of the following month and the invoice due dates shall be determined from the first of the month.
* Returns - full credit with no restocking charge for return of excess inventory or late shipment.
* Substitutions - full credit for return of merchandise not ordered.

After negotiating the above points, determine what the supplier will agree to and set a time for the potential vendor to get back to you with a working agreement.

Select at least three suppliers for each product line to meet your merchandise and supply needs. Check the reliability of the potential supplier through other customers and develop and maintain a file of special agreements with suppliers selected.

The supplier also wants the highest profit attainable and if he can get your business with little or no extra cost he will take it, so remember if you do not negotiate these points you will get the deal that is best for the vendor and not necessarily the best for you and your business.

But it is not just the movement of a single air mass that is key in determining the type of weather we experience. Instead, the confrontation between two masses of air often cause significant changes in conditions. A mass of air moving into a particular region will encounter another mass. The area where these two air masses meet, where the conflict occurs, is commonly called a front.

For general weather watching purposes, when a cold air mass moves in and attempts to replace a warmer mass, meteorologists and weather watchers call it a cold front. When the moving air mass is warm and it meets a cold air mass, the area of contact is called a warm front.

However, movement of these huge areas of air is not limited to straight-line, horizontal activity. A warm mass encountering a colder section of air will ride over the top of the cooler mass, causing clouds to be formed through condensation. Essentially, the difference in temperature between the two air masses triggers a reaction in the water vapor of the masses. Most of the time, an observer of this activity will see cirrus clouds high in the atmosphere, with clouds forming at a slightly lower level later. Heavy stratus clouds appear, generally producing precipitation and windy conditions.

Over long periods of time, there is some consistent frontal activity, which produces the various climate conditions found around the world. Scientists have learned that weather changes produced by a cold front will often be more volatile than the activity caused by a warmer mass of air. A cold front meeting a warm air mass forces the warmer up, quickly. This movement results in unstable conditions and convection. Massive cumulus clouds will result, with storms forming along the boundary between the two masses of air. In addition, the rising air produces a low-pressure area, with stronger winds resulting. Most of the time area residents will experience heavy rain. Precipitation tends to linger after the passage of this frontal activity.

Less common but still of interest is the overtaking of a slow-moving warm front by a cold air mass. The warm air is pushed to a higher elevation but the air masses continue to travel together. This front between two air masses, one above another, is known as an occluded front, which usually have stratus clouds and some rain as companions.